Basic

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Basic Sonography

Ultrasound can enhance the diagnosis of organ injury, viable tumor, and vascular pathologies at bedside.

Additional content is being developed, so check back often for updates

Physics and Technical Facts for the Beginner

Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm (AAA)

Cardiac

Deep Vein Thrombosis (DVT)

Early Pregnancy

E-FAST (Extended Focused Assessment with Sonography in Trauma)

Gallbladder

Lung

Renal

Soft Tissue Ultrasound

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General Nerve Block Contraindications and Precautions

Allergy to local anesthetic agents
Active infection at injection site
Risk of compartment syndrome or need to monitor neurologic function
Uncooperative patient
Pre-existing neurologic deficit that could prevent the patient from communicating paresthesias or pain during the nerve block
Obesity obscuring nerve visualization
Coagulopathy (relative)

General Procedure Setup

Minimize ambient light to improve image quality. Placing a spotlight on the block site and darkening the rest of the room can have a dramatic effect on image quality.
Place machine in direct field of vision of practitioner. Avoid placement that requires twisting or head turning.
For large volume blocks place the patient on a cardiac monitor, establish IV access and have emergency airway equipment available.
Provide analgesics and light sedation as needed.
Obtain consent and document a pre-block neurologic exam.

Injection Precautions

Remove all air from the needle prior to beginning.
Ensure the needle is clearly visualized prior to advancing.
Never inject if the patient complains of intense pain or pressure as this could signify intraneural injection.
Anesthetic should inject easily with one finger on the plunger. High pressure can be due to intraneural placement.
Avoid intravascular injection. Always aspirate for blood prior to injecting anesthetic. If injection fails to produce a resulting bolus on the ultrasound image, stop injecting and reposition. If intravascular injection of local anesthetic occurs, then the physician must recognize the potentially life-threatening complication of local anesthetic systemic toxicity (LAST). LAST can lead to cardiovascular collapse. If this occurs, the provider should follow ACLS protocols and administer intralipid emulsion therapy.

In-plane (long-axis) approach

Video 1. In-plane approach

The needle enters the skin at the short side of the transducer and the probe is slid toward the needle until seen

Course of the needle is parallel to and transects the ultrasound beam
Bevel faces the transducer

The transducer is readjusted frequently

Across the axis of the needle to maintain visualization
Rotated to ensure the ultrasound beam remains parallel to the needle

Advantages

Needle shaft and tip are well visualized
Great depth and trajectory information
Generally easier to master

Disadvantages

May require the operator to use the needle in their non-dominant hand
Visualizing a thin needle with a thin ultrasound beam can be challenging

Important Application Information

Providers should choose the appropriate needle gauge, length and type

Larger gauge needles are easier to locate with ultrasound and should be considered for beginners

Several needles are available to perform nerve blocks:

Cutting point needles

the most common found in the ED
easily pass through tissue and theoretically could more easily penetrate a nerve if accidentally contacted

Spinal needle (quincke tip)

non-cutting, long bevel needle
more difficult to penetrate through tissue
readily available in a variety of lengths and gauges in most EDs
used with success in several ED based US-guided nerve block studies

Short-beveled or blunt-point needles

generally used by anesthesiologists and can be special ordered
more difficult to pass through tissue and therefore provide feedback to the operator as they pass through tissue planes
theoretically less likely to cause damage if brought into contact with a nerve. However, no studies have confirmed decreased neural injury with short or blunt point needles

Needle Orientation: In-Plane vs Out-of-Plane Approach

Figure 1. Needle Orientations
2 needle orientations for ultrasound guided procedures, the in-plane and out-of-plane approach

In-plane (long-axis) approach

Video 1. In-plane approach

The needle enters the skin at the short side of the transducer and the probe is slid toward the needle until seen

Course of the needle is parallel to and transects the ultrasound beam
Bevel faces the transducer

The transducer is readjusted frequently

Across the axis of the needle to maintain visualization
Rotated to ensure the ultrasound beam remains parallel to the needle

Advantages

Needle shaft and tip are well visualized
Great depth and trajectory information
Generally easier to master

Disadvantages

May require the operator to use the needle in their non-dominant hand
Visualizing a thin needle with a thin ultrasound beam can be challenging

Out-of-plane (short-axis) approach

Video 2. Out-of-plane approach

The needle enters the skin at the long side of the transducer and the probe is slid towards the needle until seen

Course is perpendicular to the ultrasound beam
Bevel faces the transducer

The needle tip and shaft can look the same on ultrasound

The procedure involves allowing the needle to catch up to the ultrasound beam but never pass it:

Identify the needle tip after piercing the skin
Slide the probe away from the needle until the tip is no longer visualized
Advance the needle only until it is seen again
Slide the probe away from the needle again until it is no longer seen and then advance the needle as above

This process is repeated down to the target

This catch-up motion prevents the needle tip from being lost or passing beyond the beam to damage deeper structures

Out-of-plane (short-axis) Approach

Video 1. Out-of-plane approach

The needle enters the skin at the long side of the transducer and the probe is slid towards the needle until seen

Course is perpendicular to the ultrasound beam
Bevel faces the transducer

The needle tip and shaft can look the same on ultrasound

The procedure involves allowing the needle to catch up to the ultrasound beam but never pass it:

Identify the needle tip after piercing the skin
Slide the probe away from the needle until the tip is no longer visualized
Advance the needle only until it is seen again
Slide the probe away from the needle again until it is no longer seen and then advance the needle as above
This process is repeated down to the target
This catch-up motion prevents the needle tip from being lost or passing beyond the beam to damage deeper structures

Advantages

Easier visualization of surrounding structures (e.g. artery and nerve)
Needle path can be short
Operators who perform vascular access in short axis may find this approach more comfortable

Disadvantages

Tip of the needle and shaft of the needle can look the same
Needle tracking can be difficult for novices

Visualizing the Needle

During the block, keeping the tip in view is of critical importance. Doing so will result in the highest quality block and avoid the most devastating complications.

A few factors play into how well the tip displays:

Approach
- The tip is generally easier to visualize with the in-plane approach.
Needle orientation
- Choosing a shallow angle will also help, as it presents more of the needle to the ultrasound beam for reflection.
- The needle tip should always be oriented such that the bevel is facing toward the probe; this way the broadest, most echogenic portion of the tip is available for reflection.
Needle gauge
- The larger needles are easier to visualize.

Never advance the needle if you are unsure of the tip position.

If you lose the tip, slowly rock the probe on its face to scan through the needle. You may need to rotate the probe to align it with the axis of the needle.
If you are still unsure, withdraw the needle slightly and watch for tissue movement.
If the tip is not clear, inject 0.5 cc of local anesthetic. This will deform the tissue surrounding the tip, and the anechoic fluid bolus should highlight the tip.
If these attempts fail to localize the tip, withdraw the needle and choose a different angle or puncture site.

Ensure to inject all air from needles as air in the tissue will prevent visualization of deeper structures.

Anisotropy

Video 1. Anisotropy

Nerves can exhibit strong anisotropy

Anisotropy refers to the changes in echogenicity of a structure as the angle of insonation is changed.
Care must be taken to adjust the angle of insonation to ensure optimal nerve visualization.
Tendons, ligaments and muscle also exhibit anisotropy.